Relating to the Ocean
Within the traditional Hawaiian worldview, the ocean is understood as a manifestation of the akua Kanaloa. The winds that blow across the ocean, the swells generated by those winds, and the ocean currents are all within his realm.
The rising and falling of the tides can be understood as the inhaling and exhaling of Kanaloa's hā (breath). Kanaloa was also recognized as an akua associated with voyaging and navigation.
The portion of the ocean visible from shore is known as Kai—the familiar, ever-present sea that embraces the land. Beyond the horizon, where the ocean stretches into the unknown, lies the Moana—the vast, open ocean.
ʻAle are ocean waves, particularly the long swells that travel great distances across the open sea. In contrast, Nalu commonly refers to waves and surf near the shoreline.
Most ocean waves are created by wind blowing across the surface of the water. Unlike waves generated by earthquakes or landslides, these wind-generated waves develop as the wind transfers energy into the ocean's surface. As a wave travels, the water moves primarily in a circular motion, while the wave's energy moves forward through the ocean.
The height and power of wind-generated waves depend on three principal factors:
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The strength of the wind.
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The fetch, or the uninterrupted distance over which the wind blows across the water.
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The duration of time the wind continues to blow.
The stronger the wind, the longer it blows, and the greater the fetch, the larger the waves that can develop. Within the area where the wind is generating them, these waves are often choppy, irregular, and travel in different directions.
Because wind does not blow at a constant speed or direction, the waves it generates vary in size, wavelength, and speed. As these waves travel across hundreds or even thousands of miles of open ocean, the longer waves move faster than the shorter ones. This causes the waves to gradually separate and organize into more regular groups or sets.
The Hawaiian word Haʻanopu describes these "sets" of waves.
These swells often arrive in recognizable groups or sets, with several larger waves followed by smaller ones. The Hawaiian word Haʻanopu describes these "sets" of waves.
Once these swells leave the area where they were generated, they no longer require the original wind to sustain their movement. They continue carrying energy across the ocean, often traveling thousands of miles before reaching distant shores.
Unlike the irregular waves within a storm, long-distance swells generally exhibit more consistent directions and periods. These predictable patterns provide important information that traditional, non-instrument navigators can use to maintain their direction while traveling across the open ocean.
Coastal Navigation
The hoʻokele (steersman) observes ocean surface conditions to identify signs of reefs, submerged rocks, currents, and other hazards that may threaten the canoe during coastal voyages. The hoʻokele also uses landmarks and other visible reference points to determine the canoe's position, monitor its progress, maintain its direction, and detect sideways drift while traveling along the coast or between islands within sight of one another.
*KUKUI ʻOʻOLOPŪ: Reference points used in steering
Kukui: light (figuratively) guide
O’olopū: to change as in appearance
The coastal navigation practices described here reflect knowledge passed down through our mokuʻauhau and refined through generations of experience on the ocean. These methods represent one tradition of Hawaiian canoe navigation and are not intended to suggest that all Hawaiian hoʻokele followed exactly the same practices. We recognize and respect the knowledge and traditions preserved by other families and communities.
Coastal Navigation
Kukui ʻOʻolopū — Changing Points of Reference
Navigating a Hawaiian canoe along a coastline or between islands within sight of one another requires much more than simply steering toward a distant destination. The hoʻokele, or navigator, must continuously observe the surrounding landscape, the ocean, and the movement of the canoe to determine its position, direction, and progress.
One important method involves using multiple points of reference, known here as kukui ʻoʻolopū. These references help the hoʻokele maintain direction while recognizing when changes in the canoe's course may be necessary.
A kukui ʻoʻolopū may be a prominent point of land, a notch along a mountain ridge, an isolated hill, a distinctive tree, or even a dark area on a distant landscape. Other references may include a recognizable cloud formation, the position of the rising or setting sun, the moon, or stars.
Not all these references are permanent. Clouds change shape and position, celestial bodies move across the sky, and nearby landmarks appear to change position as the canoe advances. Even a stationary landmark may become more or less useful depending upon the canoe's location.
The important consideration is not whether the reference itself moves, but how its usefulness changes during the journey.
Using Individual Landmarks and Their Relationships
The hoʻokele does not simply follow one landmark until reaching it and then select another. Coastal navigation involves a more continuous and interconnected process.
At any given moment, the hoʻokele may concentrate on one particular landmark as the principal steering reference. At the same time, other landmarks are observed to maintain an awareness of the canoe's position and movement.
These additional landmarks may be located ahead, to either side, or behind the canoe. They need not lie directly along the intended route.
For example, the hoʻokele may use a prominent point of land ahead as a steering reference while also observing a distant mountain ridge and another point of land behind the canoe.
As the canoe moves, the apparent positions of these landmarks change in relation to one another. A nearby point of land may appear to move across the face of a distant mountain. Two landmarks that were originally separated may gradually come into alignment, while others that were aligned may begin to separate.
By observing these changing relationships, the hoʻokele gains information about the canoe's position and movement relative to the surrounding land.
The individual landmarks provide guidance, while their relationships provide a broader understanding of where the canoe is and how it is progressing.
The hoʻokele is therefore not simply navigating from one landmark to another, but maintaining an awareness of the entire surrounding landscape, with individual landmarks continually changing in importance.
Recognizing When to Change Steering References
As the canoe advances along its route, the usefulness of each landmark gradually changes.
A prominent point of land that initially serves as the principal steering reference may move from directly ahead to one side of the canoe. As the canoe continues, the point eventually falls behind, making it less useful for guiding the canoe's immediate direction.
However, that same landmark may remain valuable as a reference for orientation.
Meanwhile, another landmark that was previously distant or off to one side may become more suitable as the next principal steering reference.
The decision to change from one reference to another is influenced by the position of the canoe, the intended route, and the changing relationships among the surrounding landmarks.
In this manner, the hoʻokele does not suddenly abandon one reference and begin navigating toward another. The new reference is already part of the surrounding landscape being observed. Its importance gradually increases as the canoe progresses.
A landmark may therefore serve different purposes during different portions of the same journey. It may initially provide general orientation, later become the principal steering reference, and eventually serve as a reference behind the canoe.
This continuous process of observing, comparing, selecting, and replacing references allows the hoʻokele to maintain direction without becoming dependent upon any single landmark.
Following the Coastline
The shortest distance between a point of departure and an intended destination is not always the safest or most practical route for a canoe.
Reefs, submerged rocks, shallow water, projecting headlands, winds, ocean currents, and the direction of ocean swells may require the canoe to follow a course that differs considerably from a straight line.
The hoʻokele must therefore distinguish between the direction of the intended destination and the direction in which the canoe should be steered at any particular moment.
For example, a canoe traveling along a coastline may need to steer farther offshore to avoid a reef or a dangerous headland. Once clear of the obstruction, the canoe can gradually turn toward the next suitable passage.
During these maneuvers, the hoʻokele continues using the surrounding landmarks to maintain orientation. The principal steering reference may change several times even though the intended destination remains the same.
It is also important to understand that maintaining a constant direction does not necessarily mean keeping the bow pointed directly at a particular landmark. Winds and currents can cause the canoe to move in a direction different from the direction its bow is facing.
The hoʻokele must judge the actual movement of the canoe and make the necessary corrections.
Under normal conditions, course corrections should be gradual, avoiding unnecessary changes that interrupt the canoe's forward progress. However, sudden changes may be necessary to avoid hazards or respond to dangerous ocean conditions.
The objective is to maintain steady and safe progress toward the destination rather than to follow a perfectly straight course.
Understanding the Navigation Illustration
The accompanying illustration shows a canoe traveling along a coastline from a point of departure to an intended destination.
The red line represents an illustrative route that curves around projecting points of land and offshore reefs.
At different positions along this route, the canoe uses different landmarks as its principal steering reference. These are shown by the yellow dashed lines.
The thinner white dashed lines represent additional landmarks being observed at the same time.
As the canoe leaves its departure point, Landmark #1 serves as an initial steering reference. Other visible features of the coastline provide supporting information about the canoe's direction.
As the canoe rounds the first point of land, Landmark #1 gradually moves alongside and then behind the canoe. Although its usefulness for steering decreases, it remains a valuable reference for orientation.
At the same time, Intermediate Landmark #1 becomes more useful as a steering reference. The hoʻokele recognizes this change through continued observation of the surrounding landscape.
Farther along the route, Intermediate Landmark #2 becomes the principal steering reference, while the distant Landmark #2 and other visible features continue to provide information about the canoe's position.
Throughout this journey, the hoʻokele does not observe these landmarks separately. Their changing positions in relation to one another help determine which reference is most useful and when another should take its place.
The illustration therefore represents a continuous process rather than a series of independent movements between fixed waypoints.
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The Importance of the Point of Departure
A fundamental element of this navigation process is maintaining an awareness of the direction of the point of departure.
At the beginning of a journey, the departure point and surrounding landmarks establish the canoe's initial orientation.
As the canoe moves away, the departure point gradually falls behind. Its position in relation to the surrounding landscape provides an important reference for judging the direction and progress of the journey.
Even after the departure point disappears from view, the hoʻokele strives to maintain an understanding of its general direction.
This awareness helps connect the canoe's present position with the route already traveled.
As new landmarks become useful and older references disappear, the hoʻokele continues to relate the canoe's movement to the original direction of departure and the intended destination.
The departure point therefore provides an important foundation for orientation, even though the landmarks used for steering may change many times during the journey.
Aweawe — The Wake of the Canoe
In addition to landmarks, the hoʻokele can obtain valuable information by observing the aweawe, or wake of the canoe.
As the canoe travels through the water, it leaves a visible disturbance extending behind the hull.
The direction and appearance of this wake can help the hoʻokele judge how consistently the canoe is moving through the water and whether its direction is changing.
When wind pushes the canoe sideways, the wake may extend at an angle to the canoe's centerline. This provides an indication of sideways movement through the water, commonly called leeway.
Ocean currents present another consideration. Because a current carries both the canoe and the surrounding water, its effect may not be apparent from the wake alone. The hoʻokele must compare the canoe's movement with landmarks and other external references to recognize displacement caused by currents.
The aweawe is therefore another source of information that contributes to the hoʻokele's understanding of the canoe's movement.
Like the surrounding landmarks, it becomes most useful when considered in relation to other observations.
The Danger of Becoming Fixed on a Single Landmark
One of the dangers in coastal navigation is concentrating so intently upon a single reference that other important changes in the surrounding environment go unnoticed.
A landmark may continue to appear in a familiar position even while wind or current is gradually carrying the canoe away from its intended route.
Similarly, the hoʻokele may become so concerned with maintaining alignment with one landmark that approaching reefs, changing ocean conditions, or more useful steering references are overlooked.
To avoid this danger, the hoʻokele must remain attentive to the entire surrounding environment.
The direction of the wind, the movement of ocean swells, the appearance of reefs, the canoe's wake, and the changing relationships between landmarks all contribute information.
The hoʻokele must recognize which observations are useful at a particular moment without losing awareness of the others.
This requires experience, judgment, and the ability to recognize changes before they become problems.
Coastal Navigation as a Continuous Process
Coastal navigation is not simply a matter of identifying a destination and steering toward it. Nor is it a process of moving from one predetermined waypoint to another.
It is a continuous practice of observing the surrounding environment, understanding the relationships between visible references, and making adjustments as the canoe advances.
Individual landmarks provide steering guidance, but their changing relationships help reveal the canoe's position, direction, and progress. As one reference becomes less useful, another takes its place, while older references may continue to provide valuable information.
The hoʻokele must also understand the effects of winds, currents, swells, and coastal hazards upon the canoe's movement.
These observations are not separate activities. They are parts of a single, ongoing process through which the hoʻokele maintains orientation and guides the canoe safely toward its destination.
The essential skill of the hoʻokele is not merely knowing which landmark to follow, but understanding how the changing relationships among many landmarks reveal where the canoe is, where it has come from, and where it is going.
Dangers when using Kukui ʻoʻolopū:
Nanakuli:
“Nānā Kuli” literally means “Deaf Watching” or “Blind Observation.”
However, its navigational or figurative meaning is deeper. In the context of wayfinding (ho‘okele wa‘a), Nānā Kuli refers to the practice or danger of “looking but not truly seeing” — when the navigator focuses too narrowly or becomes fixated on one landmark or point of reference and fails to perceive the broader environmental cues (winds, swells, clouds, stars, etc.).
So, depending on context, Nānā Kuli can be interpreted as:
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“To look without awareness,”
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“To observe blindly,” or
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“To fixate and lose true perception.”
It’s often paired with “Hahai Ao” — meaning “to follow the light (cloud or horizon sign)” — the corrective concept of maintaining awareness and responsiveness to changing signs.
Hahai ao:
“Hahai Ao” literally means “to follow the light” or “to follow the cloud.”
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Hahai = to follow, pursue, or go after.
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Ao = light, cloud, or day (depending on context).
In the context of navigation (hoʻokele waʻa), Hahai Ao carries a figurative and instructional meaning — it describes the navigator’s practice of staying aware, responsive, and adaptable by following subtle environmental cues such as the play of light on clouds, reflections on the ocean, or other natural signs that indicate direction or changing conditions.
So while its literal meaning is simple — “follow the light/cloud” — its deeper sense is:
“Maintain awareness and adjust to the shifting signs of nature.”
It is often mentioned as the positive counterpart to Nānā Kuli — the state of awareness, responsiveness, and connection to the environment that keeps a navigator balanced and in tune with the living world.
Nā Pōʻino e Makaʻala Ai
Dangerous things to look out for
Knowing the signs of danger was a Kuleana of every crew member on board the canoe
Kohola – Bare reef at low tide, clearly visible but barely above sea level
Kua Pa’aKua- rock which shows itself then is covered from view as the ocean surface surges. There are usually wisps of white water as the water flows over the reef or rock.
Kai Ko ele Thumping sea: Ocean surface is agitated but there is no white water or white caps. The surface of the water becomes smooth when the ocean surges over the rocks or reef below. It is said that a canoe hull makes a thumping sound when sailing over the reef or rock as the hull strikes the rocks below.
Pu Ko’a A submerged coral head or rock may cause the water directly above it to appear a different color from the surrounding water. The water may take on a brownish or tan appearance, indicating possible shallow water.
The depth of water over a pūkoʻa must be carefully judged, as submerged rocks and coral can present a danger to passing canoes.
Ke ʻAno Na Makani: wind Conditions
Understanding how strong the wind is blowing and how that wind affects sea surface conditions is critical to not only effectively operating a canoe but ensuring crew safety. . The wind and sea surface categories described in this section are based on traditional Hawaiian sea descriptions.
He'e Nalu: surfing
For Hawaiians, the ability of a canoe to negotiate breaking surf was more than a matter of seamanship. It was often essential to reaching offshore fishing grounds and returning safely to shore with food for the community.
Unlike many islands of the South Pacific, much of the Hawaiian coastline is directly exposed to powerful ocean swells. The force of breaking surf presented a constant challenge to canoe builders and their crews. Over generations, these demanding conditions helped shape both the distinctive design of the traditional Hawaiian canoe and the skills required to operate it safely.
The ability to launch and land through heavy surf became an essential part of Hawaiian canoe culture.
From T. Holmes: The Hawaiian Canoe
Ho'okele: Steering
Keeping a round-bottom canoe on course in choppy seas requires considerable skill. Although visually recognizing when the canoe begins to veer off course is important, it is even more critical for the steersman to feel the subtle movements caused by waves and wind as they act upon the canoe.
This sensitivity allows the steersman to anticipate changes in the canoe's direction before they become visually apparent and respond immediately with the appropriate steering stroke.
Righting an Overturned Canoe
To minimize loss of life and canoe, "Ke Kama-ihuli-pū, the art of righting upset canoes" was rigorously taught "to the fishermen and the canoesmen of the ancient chiefs of Hawaii. No chief ever sailed the sea carelessly," reported Kaelemakule "without the taking with him some men that were experts in righting a canoe in case they met with an accident at sea."
From T. Holmes: The Hawaiian Canoe
Star Navigation/Wayfinding
Star navigation uses some of the same principles of orientation employed in coastal navigation, but it is considerably more complex. Navigators observe the rising and setting positions of stars along the horizon to establish and maintain their direction. Ocean swell patterns, winds, and other natural signs also provide important navigational information.
These specialized navigational practices are beyond the scope of our educational program, and we defer to experienced Pwo navigators and other traditional wayfinding experts for detailed instruction on these subjects.